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Home Endnotes and Links:
Chap 1
Chap 2
Chap 3 Chap 5
Chap 6 Chap 7
Chap 8 Chap 9
Health Program Planning, 4th edition (2004)
Chapter 4 (formerly Chap. 5 in third
edition)
Ecological and Educational Diagnosis of Factors Affecting
Health-Related Environments and Behavior
Table of Contents (Click on the section to go to the
new endnotes and references for that section)
Reciprocal Determinism
Theoretical Themes Underlying this Part of
the Model
Predisposing Factors
Enabling Factors
Reinforcing Factors
Selecting Determinants of
Behavioral and Environmental Change
Endnotes* (Besides the table of contents above, you can
search this page for references by topic or by key words, theories, models,
authors, journals, dates, etc. using the "Find" command in the Edit menu)
*Although many of the articles cited below are hyperlinked to
their abstracts, you might need to copy the citation to a word processing
document to be able to click on the title and get to the linked abstract.
Endnote numbers refer to 4th edition, unless followed by >, in
which case the first number refers to the third edition, and the number after
the > refers to the 4th edition.
1.
Reciprocal determinism of behavior and environment:
In previous
editions, we have presented these concepts of predisposing, enabling, and
reinforcing factors in separate sections for their influences on behavior and
influences on the environment. As the ecological approach has taken hold in
program planning, the artificial compartmentalization of these by the
disciplines that have nurtured the theories and research on each factor's
influence has given way to a transdisciplinary view of their interaction and
reciprocal determinism, as reflected in this discussion. See also, Best,
Stokols, et al.,
2003; Halfon & Hochstein, 2002; Hertzman et al., 2001; IOM, 2001; Jamner &
Stokols, 2000; Keating & Hertzman, 1999; King et al., 2002; Singer & Ryff, 2001;
Stokols, 2000.
Best, A., Stokols, D., Green, L. W., Leischow, S.,
Buchholz, K., Holmes, B.
(2003).
Health promotion and community partnering: Translating theory into effective
strategy. American Journal of Health Promotion, 18, 168-76.
Halfon, N., & Hochstein, M.
(2002). Life course health development: An integrated framework for developing
health, policy, and research. The Milbank Quarterly, 80, 433-79.
Hertzman,
C., Power, C., Matthews, C., & Manor, O. (2001). Using an interactive framework
of society and lifecourse to explain self-rated health in early adulthood.
Social Science and Medicine, 53, 1575-85.
Institute of Medicine. (2001).
Health and behavior: The interplay of biological behavioral, and societal
influences. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Jamner, M., & Stokols, D.
(Eds.). (2000). Promoting human wellness: New frontiers for research,
practice, and policy. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Keating, D. P., & Hertzman, C.
(Eds.). (1999). Developmental health and the wealth of nations: Social,
biological and educational dynamics. New York: Guilford Press; 1999.
King, A. C., Stokols, D., Talen, E., Brassington, G. S., & Killingsworth, R.
(2002).
Theoretical approaches to the promotion of physical activity: Forging a
transdisciplinary paradigm. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23(2
Suppl), 15-25.
Singer, B. H., & Ryff, C. D.
(Eds.). (2001). New horizons in health: An integrative approach.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Stokols, D. (2000).
Social ecology and behavioral medicine: implications for training, practice, and
policy. Behavioral Medicine, 26, 129-38.
1>2. Theoretical themes underlying the Precede-Proceed model.
See
endnote 14 in Chapter 1,
and Chapter 1 of previous editions for earlier published references. For a searchable bibliography of some 950
published applications of the model, go to
http://lgreen.net/hpp/precede
apps/preapps.htm. The theoretical grounding
and evolution of the Model has been influenced as much from its various
applications and the theories brought to bear in those applications as in the
original theories and research that led to the formulation of the model.
3. Social learning, as distinct from formal educational process,
and the individual as an agent of environmental
change, not just a victim of the environment.
Bandura, 2001; 2002; Green, 2004.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory. In L. Breslow et al.
Encyclopedia of public health, vol. 4. (pp. 1121-1122). New York,
Macmillan Reference USA.
Green, L. W.
(2004). Introduction of Albert Bandura to receive the Healthtrac Foundation
Prize for Health Education at the Society for Public Health Education.
Health Behavior and Education, 31, in press.
2>4. Stages of change applied to populations: Prochaska, 2001;
Prochaska et al., 2001; Sarkin et al., 2001.
For critiques of
the theory and its application, see Bandura, 1997; Lechner, Brug, & Mudde, 1998.
[Citations predating 1999 for which references are not listed here will be found
in the 3rd edition of the book.]
Prochaska, J. O. (2001). Treating entire populations for behavior risks for
cancer. Cancer Journal, 7, 360-8.
Prochaska JO, Velicer WF, Fava JL, Rossi JS, Tsoh JY. (2001). Evaluating a
population-based recruitment approach and a stage-based expert system
intervention for smoking cessation. Addictive Behavior, 26, 583-602.
Sarkin, J. A., Johnson, S. S., Prochaska, J. O., & Prochaska, J. M. (2001).
Applying the transtheoretical model to regular moderate exercise in an
overweight population: Validation of a stages of change measure. Preventive
Medicine, 2001 Nov;33(5):462-9.
3>5. St. Louis community asthma project with African-American low-income
neighborhood:
E. B. Fisher et al., 1996, p. 371. For other Precede analyses of educational
and ecological determinants of behavior and environments influencing asthma,
see W. C. Bailey et al., 1987; Barner et al., 1999; Bartholomew, Parcel, Kok, &
Gottlieb, 2001, pp. 34-34 & Fig 2.5; Boulet, Belanger, & Lajoie, 1996; Boulet,
Chapman, Green, & FitzGerald, 1994; Chiang et al., 2003; H. Cohen, Harris, &
Green, 1979; Fireman, Friday, Gira, Vierthaler, & Michaels, 1981; Green, 1974;
Green & Frankish, 1994; Hindi-Alexander & Cropp, 1981; Liu & Feekery, 2001;
Maiman, Green, Gibson, & Mackenzie, 1979; Mesters, Meertens, Crebolder, &
Parcel, 1993; Pujet et al., 1997; Taggart et al., 1991. New references since 3rd
edition:
Bailey WC, Kohler CL, Richards JM Jr, Windsor RA, Brooks
CM, Gerald LB, Martin B, Higgins DM, Liu T.
(1999). Asthma self-management: do patient education programs always have an
impact? Arch Intern Med. 159, 2422-8.
Barner, J. C.,
Mason, H. L., & Murray, M. D. (1999).
Assessment of asthma patients' willingness to pay for and give time to an asthma
self-management program. Clinical Therapeutics, 21, 878-94.
Bartholomew, L.
K, Parcel, G. S., Kok, G., & Gottlieb, N. H. (2001). Intervention
mapping: Designing theory- and evidence-based health promotion programs.
Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co. (now McGraw-Hill).
Chiang,
L., Huang, J., & Lu, C.
(2003).
Educational diagnosis of self-management behaviors of parents with asthmatic
children by triagulation based on PRECEDE-PROCEED model in Taiwan.
Patient Education and Counseling, 49, 19-25.
Liu, C., & Feekery, C. (2001).
Can asthma education improve clinical outcomes? An evaluation of a pediatric
asthma education program. Journal of Asthma, 38, 269-78.
Pujet,
J-C, Nejjari,
C.,
Tessier,
J-F, Sapene,
M,
Pasquet,
S, & Racineux,
J-L
.
(1997). Diagnostic and education in asthma. A description of the results of
a survey by questionnaire. Revue Des Maladies Respiratoires, 14,
209-17.
6.
Bartholomew, Parcel, Kok, & Gottlieb, 2001,
present a graphic summary of the determinants of behavioral factors in asthma
outcomes that also lists a set of environmental factors that interact with the
behavioral factors (Fig. 2.5, p. 35). We commend this to those planning
asthma self-management programs, but would recommend directing the enabling and
reinforcing factors listed under “educational diagnosis” at the environmental
factors as well as the behavioral. Many of their enabling and reinforcing
factors would influence behavior and health outcomes through the social and
physical environmental determinants, whereas the graph as drawn implies that all
of the direct effects of change in the enabling and reinforcing factors would be
on behavioral change in the parents or children with asthma.
4>7.
Psychographics. The use of
marketing concepts and tools such as psychographics have found their way
increasingly into health program planning, especially via social marketing and
where the health program has a product or service to "sell" to the public, such
as condoms (Gray et al., 2001) or nicotine replacement treatments (Ling,
& Glantz, 2002). Some other recent
examples of psychographics in health planning include Stephenson et al., 2002 in
drug abuse prevention and Candel, 2001 in consumer orientation toward
convenience in meal preparation.
Candel, M. (2001).
Consumers' convenience orientation towards meal preparation: Conceptualization
and measurement. Appetite, 36, 15-28.
Gray, B., Morgan, G. T., & Shirer, R. (2001).
Condom use and partner characteristics among young adult males in urban Ghana,
aged 15-24. Social Biology, 48, 234-55.
Ling, P. M., & Glantz, S. A. (2002).
Using tobacco-industry marketing research to design more effective
tobacco-control campaigns. Journal of the American Medical Association,
287, 2983-9.
Stephenson, M. T., Morgan, S. E., Lorch, E.P., Palmgreen, P., Donohew, L.,
& Hoyle, R. H. (2002).
Predictors of exposure from an antimarijuana media campaign: Outcome research
assessing sensation seeking targeting. Health Communication, 14,
23-43.
Predisposing Factors
5>8. Sociographics. Demographic characteristics that predict,
moderate, and
sometimes explain variations in health behavior serve in conjunction with
psychographics to segment and target health communications and other program
interventions. E.g., Espy, & Senn, 2003; Fernando et al., 2003; Green & Potvin,
2002; Shoenberg et al., 2003; Whaley, & Winfield, 2003.
Espy, K. A., & Senn, T. E. (2003).
Incidence and correlates of breast milk feeding in hospitalized preterm
infants. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 1421-8.
Fernando, D., Schilling, R. F., Fontdevila, J., & El-Bassel,
N. (2003). Predictors of sharing drugs among injection drug users in the South
Bronx: implications for HIV transmission. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs,
35, 227-36.
Green, L. W. & Potvin, L. (2002). Education, health promotion, and social and
lifestyle determinants of health and disease. In R. Detels, J. McEwen, R.
Beaglehole, & H. Tanaka (Eds.). Oxford Textbook of public health: Vol 1:
The scope of public health, 4th edition (pp. 113-130). New
York: Oxford University Press.
Schoenberg, N. E., Amey, C. H., Stoller, E. P., &
Muldoon, S. B. (2003).
Lay referral patterns involved in cardiac treatment decision making among
middle-aged and older adults.
Gerontologist, 43, 493-502.
Whaley, A. L., & Winfield, E. B. (2003).
Correlates of African American college students' condom use to prevent
pregnancy, STDs, or both outcomes. Journal of the National Medical
Association, 95, 702-9.
6>9. PRECEDE examples of using socio-demographic
information for health planning by examining cultural differences imbedded in
the predisposing demographic variations. Airhihenbuwa, 1995, esp p. 152 ff.;
Bird et al., 1996; Castro et al., 1999, esp. pp 139, 151; Dabbagh et al.,
1991-92; Doyle et al., 1999; Doyle & Feldman, 1977; Farthing, 1994; Frankish,
Lovato, & Shannon, 1999, esp.
pp. 59-63, 67; Glanz, Grove, et al., 1999 (using Andersen's earlier
classification in which reinforcing were part of enabling factors); Gutierrez &
Le, 1999, esp. pp.
359-60, 367, 370; Hiatt et al., 1996; Huff & Kline, 1999,
esp. pp. 482, 495,
see also
pp.
76-78, 81-91;
. 383, 389-390, 504-506, 509, & 513; Maxwell et al., 1998; Pasick,
D'Onofrio, & Otero-Sabogal, 1996; Turner et al., 1995;
Ugarte et al., 1992. Some
applications of Precede analyses for planning programs cross-culturally have
used participatory research methods with native populations, which have
tended to draw them to a closer examination of demographic variations within
what had been treated as culturally homogeneous populations (Bruerd, Kinney, &
Bothwell, 1989; Daniel & Green,
1995; Daniel, Green, et al., 1999; Kieth & Doyle, 1998;
Macaulay,
Paradis,
et al., 1997; McGowan & Green, 1995).
Airhihenbuwa, C.O. (1995). Health and culture: Beyond the Western paradigm.
Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 152 p., 1995.
Bird,
J. A., Otero-Sabogal, R., Ha, N.-T., & McPhee, S. J. (1996). Tailoring lay
health worker interventions for diverse cultures: lessons learned from
Vietnamese and Latina communities. Health Education and Behavior, 23
(Suppl.), S105-22.
Bruerd, B.,
Kinney, M. B., & Bothwell, E. (1989). Preventing baby bottle tooth decay in
American Indian and Alaska Native communities: A model for planning. Public
Health Reports 104, 631-40.
Castro,
F. G.,
Cota,
M. K.,
Vega,
S. C.
(1999). Health promotion in Latino populations: A sociocultural model for
program planning, development, and evaluation. In R. M. Huff, & M. V. Kline
(Eds.). Promoting Health in Multicultural Populations: A Handbook for
Practitioners
(pp. 137-68).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dabbagh,
L., Green, L. W., & Walker, G. M. (1991-92). Case Study: Application of
PRECEDE and PROCEED as a framework for designing culturally sensitive diarrhea
prevention programs and policy in Arab countries. International Quarterly
of Community Health Education, 12, 293-315.
Daniel, M., &
Green, L. W. (1995). Application of the Precede-Proceed model in prevention
and control of diabetes: A case illustration from an aboriginal community.
Diabetes Spectrum 8, 80-123.
Daniel,
M., Green,
L. W.,
Marion,
S. A., Gamble,
D.,
Herbert, C. P., Hertzman,
C.,
&
Sheps, S.
B.
(1999). Effectiveness of community-directed diabetes prevention and control
in a rural Aboriginal population in British Columbia, Canada. Social
Science & Medicine, 48, 815-832.
Doyle, E. I.,
Beatty, C. F., Shaw, M. W. (1999).
Using cooperative learning groups to develop health-related cultural
awareness. Journal of School Health 69, 73-76.
Doyle,
E. I., & Feldman, R. H. L. (1997). Factors affecting nutrition behavior among
middle-class adolescents in urban area of Northern region of Brazil. Revue
Saude Publica, 31, 342-50, 1997.
Farthing, M. (1994). Health education needs of a Hutterite Colony. The
Canadian Nurse/L'Infirmiere Canadienne 90, 20-6.
Frankish, C. J., Lovato,
C. Y.,
Shannon, W. J. (1999). Models, theories, and principles of health promotion
with multicultural populations. In R. M. Huff, & M. V. Kline (Eds.),
Promoting health in multicultural populations: A handbook for practitioners (pp.
41-72).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Glanz, K.,
Grove, J., Lerman, C., Gotay, C., Le Marchand, L. (1999). Correlates of
intentions to obtain genetic counseling and colorectal cancer gene testing
among at-risk relatives from three ethnic groups. Cancer Epidemiology
Biomarkers & Prevention, 8, 329-36.
Gutierrez English, J., & Le, A. (1999). Assessing needs and planning,
implementing, and evaluating health promotion and disease prevention programs
among Asian American population groups. In R. M. Huff & M. V. Kline (Eds.).
Promoting health in multicultural populations: A handbook for practitioners (pp.
357-73). Thousand Oaks,
CA:
Sage.
Hiatt,
R. A., Pasick, R. J., Perez-Stable, E. J., McPhee, S., Engelstad, L., Lee, M.,
Sabogal, F., D’Onofrio, C. N., & Stewart, S. (1996). Pathways to early cancer
detection in the multiethnic population of the San Francisco Bay Area.
Health Education Quarterly, 23 (Suppl.), S10-27.
Huff,
R. M., & Kline, M. V. (1999). The cultural assessment framework. In R. M.
Huff, & M. V. Kline (Eds.). Promoting health in multicultural populations:
A handbook for practitioners (pp.
481-500).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Keith,
S. E., & Doyle, E. I. (1998).
Using PRECEDE/PROCEED to address diabetes within the Choctaw
Nation of Oklahoma. American Journal of Health Behavior 22, 358-67.
Macaulay, A. C., Paradis, G., Potvin, L., Cross, E. J., Saad-Haddad, C.,
McComber, A., Desrosiers, S., Kirby, R., Montour, L. T., Lamping, D. L.,
Leduc, N., & Rivard, M. (1997). The Kahnawake schools diabetes prevention
project: Intervention, evaluation, and baseline results of a diabetes primary
prevention program with a native community in Canada. Preventive Medicine,
26, 779-90.
Maxwell, A. E., Bastani, R., & Warda,
U. S. (1998). Mammography utilization and related attitudes among
Korean-American women. Women and Health, 27, 89-107.
McGowan, P., & Green, L.W.(1995). Arthritis self-management in Native
populations of British Columbia: An application of health promotion and
participatory research principles in chronic disease control. The Canadian
Journal on Aging 14(Suppl.1), 201-12.
Pasick,
R. J., D'Onofrio, C. N., & Otero-Sabogal, R. (1996). Similarities and
differences across cultures: Questions to inform a third generation for health
promotion research. Health Education Quarterly, 23 (Suppl.),
S142-161.
Satia-Abouta J., Patterson, R. E., Kristal, A. R., et al.
(2002).
Psychosocial predictors of diet and acculturation in Chinese American and
Chinese Canadian women. Ethnic
Health 7, 21-39.
Turner,
L. W., Sutherland, M., Harris, G. J., & Barber, M. (1995). Cardiovascular
health promotion in North Florida African-American churches. Health Values:
The Journal of Health Behavior, Education & Promotion 19(2), 3-9, 1995.
Ugarte,
C. A., Duarte, P., Wilson, K. M. (1992). PATCH as a model for development of a
Hispanic health needs assessment: The El Paso experience. Journal of Health
Education 23, 171-56.
7>10. Use of demographic variation in predisposing
factors to plan programs: e.g., motivation to quit smoking vs. weight gain.
Males vs. females. Riedel et al., 2002. And further variation
between African-American and white women, Pomerleau et al., 2001.
Pomerleau, C. S., Zucker, A. N., Namenek Brouwer, R. J.,
Pomerleau, O. F., & Stewart, A. J.. (2001). Race differences in weight
concerns among women smokers: Results from two independent samples.
Addictive Behavior 26, 651-63.
Riedel, B. W., Robinson, L. A., Klesges, R. C., &
McLain-Allen, B. (2002). What motivates adolescent smokers to make a quit
attempt? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68, 167-74.
10>11. Examples of applied health-related
awareness and knowledge acquisition, and relation of knowledge to behavior.
E.g., Collins et al., 2003; Jardine, 2003; Jungers et al., 2003; some within the
Precede-Proceed framework of predisposing, enabling, reinforcing factors: Canto,
Goodman,
et al., 1998; 2001; Chiou et al., 1998; Daltroy, et al., 1993.
Canto,
M. T., Drury, T. F., Horowitz, A. M. (2001). Maryland dentists’ knowledge of
oral cancer risk factors and diagnostic procedures. Health Promotion
Practice 2(3): 255-262, July 2001.
*Canto,
M. T., Goodman,
H. S.,
Horowitz, A. M., Watson,
M. R.,
&
Duran-Medina
C.
(1998). Latino youths’ knowledge of oral cancer and use of tobacco and
alcohol. American Journal of Health Behavior, 22, 411-20.
*Chiou, C. J.,
Huang, Y. H., Ka, J. K., Chun, F. J. Huang, H. Y. (1998). Related
factors contributing to the healthy lifestyle of urban employees through the
PRECEDE model. (Chinese).
Kaohsiung
Journal of Medical Sciences (Kao-Hsiung i Hsueh Ko Hsueh Tsa Chih),
14, 339-47.
Collins, R. L., Schell, T., Ellickson, P. L., &
McCaffrey, D. (2003). Predictors of beer advertising awareness among eighth
graders. Addiction, 98, 1297-306.
*Daltroy, L. H.,
Iversen, M. D., Larson, M.G., et al. (1993). Teaching and social support:
effects on knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors to prevent low back injuries in
industry. Health Education Quarterly, 20, 43-62.
Jardine, C. G. (2003). Development of a public
participation and communication protocol for establishing fish consumption
advisories. Risk Analysis, 23, 461-71.
Jungers, E. A., Guenthner, S. T., Farmer, E. R., &
Perkins, S. M. (2003). A skin cancer education initiative at a professional
baseball game and results of a skin cancer survey. International Journal of
Dermatology, 42, 524-9.
11>12. Knowledge requirements for asthma
self-management actions.
Bartholomew,
Parcel, Kok, & Gottlieb, 2001, p. 35, do not include knowledge as necessary
predisposing factor in asthma self-management, though they do include several
skills needed by parents and children as enabling factors; Cf. Boulet, Chapman,
Green, & FitzGerald, 1994; McLean et al., 2003; Meszaros et al., 2003.
Bartholomew, L.
K, Parcel, G. S., Kok, G., & Gottlieb, N. H. (2001).
Intervention mapping: Designing theory- and evidence-based health promotion
programs. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co. (now McGraw-Hill).
*Boulet, L-P., Chapman, K. R., Green, L. W., & FitzGerald, J. M. (1994). Asthma
education. Chest, 106, Suppl. 4: 184-96.
McLean, W., Gillis, J., & Waller R. (2003). The BC Community Pharmacy
Asthma Study: A study of clinical, economic and holistic outcomes influenced
by an asthma care protocol provided by specially trained community pharmacists
in British Columbia. Canadian Respiratory Journal, 10, 195-202.
Meszaros A, Orosz M, Magyar P, Mesko A, Vincze Z. (2003). Evaluation of
asthma knowledge and quality of life in Hungarian asthmatics.
Allergy, 58, 624-8.
12>13. Awareness or new knowledge sometimes appear to be the only
thing required to get a change in behavior in those situations where the
other predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing factors are already in place. A
case study of the Ford Motor Company’s medical screening and surveillance
program notes, “Although there is little evidence that information alone
achieves behavior change...considerable evidence exists to indicate that, in
some kinds of situations, information is all that is needed to provide behavior
change....This was such a case.” Quotation from Ware, 1985, p. 321.
Ware, B. G. (1985). Occupational Health Education: A Nontraditional Role for a
Health Educator," in Advancing Health Through Education: A Case Study
Approach, H. P. Cleary, J. M. Kichen, and P. G. Ensor, eds. Palo Alto:
Mayfield, pp. 319-23.
13>14. Awareness and knowledge prevail over time in many cases because
of the human drive for cognitive consistency. The classic sources on
this are
Abelson, Aronson, McGuire, et al., 1968; and Festinger, 1957. Recent
applications of the concept of cognitive consistency and cognitive dissonance in
health include Gruber, 2003; Kiss, Richter-Mueksch, et al., 2004; Offir et al., 1993; Salovey, Schneider, & Apanovitch, 2000.
Festinger, L. (1957). A
theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Gruber M. (2003). Cognitive dissonance theory and motivation for change: a
case study. Gastroenterology Nursing, 26, 242-5.
Kiss CG, Richter-Mueksch S, Stifter E, Diendorfer-Radner G, Velikay-Parel M,
Radner W. (2004). Informed consent and decision making by cataract
patients. Archives of Ophthalmology, 122, 94-8.
Offir, J. T., Fisher, J. D.,
Williams, S. S., et al. (1993).
Reasons for inconsistent AIDS-Preventive behaviors among gay
men. Jounral of Sex Research, 30, 62-69.
Salovey, P., Schneider, T.
R., Apanovitch, A. M. (1999). Persuasion for the purpose of cancer risk
reduction: A discussion. Journal of the National Cancer Institute
Monographs, 25, 119-22, 1999.
14>15. For reviews of the various theories of intrapersonal
or psychological dynamics in health behavior, see
Glanz, Rimer, & Lewis, 2002, pp. 45-159; esp.
Rimer, 2002; B. G. Simons-Morton, Greene, & Gottlieb, 1995; K. Tones & Tilford,
1994, esp. pp. 87–103.
Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Lewis, F. M. (Eds.). (2002). Health behavior
and health education: Theory, research, and practice. 3rd ed. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Rimer, B. K. (2002). Perspectives on intrapersonal theories of health
behavior. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & F. M. Lewis (Eds.). Health behavior
and health education: Theory, research, and practice. 3rd ed. (pp.
144-159). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Simons-Morton, B. G., Greene W. H., & Gottlieb, N. H. (1995). Introduction
to health education and health promotion, 2nd edition (Prospect
Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.).
Tones, K., & Tilford, S. (1994).Health education: Effectiveness, efficiency
and equity, 2nd edition. London: Chapman & Hall.
15>16. The classic study that put the Health Belief Model on the map
was reported in Hochbaum, 1956, 1959 to explain why people sought screening
X-rays for tuberculosis. The model soon changed shape when applied to seeking
immunization. Hochbaum's colleagues substituted belief in susceptibility for
belief that one could have a disease and not know it, which he had found to be
the most important belief accounting for getting screening examinations. See
Rosenstock, 1974; Rosenstock, Derryberry, & Carriger, 1959.
Hochbaum, G. M. (1956). "Why people seek diagnostic X-Rays. Public Health
Reports, 71, 377-80.
Hochbaum, G. M. (1959). Public participation in medical screening
programs: A social-psychological study. Washington, DC: Public Health
Service, PHS-572.
Rosenstock, I. M., M. Derryberry, and B. Carriger (1959). Why people fail to
seek poliomyelitis vaccination. Public Health Reports, 74, 98-103.
Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). “The historical origins of the Health Belief Model.
Health Education Monographs, 2, 354-95.
16>17. For a more recent review of the origins, components, and applications
of the Health Belief Model, see Janz, Champion, & Strecher, 2002. For a
review and critique of studies testing the model, see J. A. Harrison,
Mullen, & Green, 1992. For a validation of its predictive power in relation
to other models, including PRECEDE, which encompasses the Health Belief Model,
see P. D. Mullen, Hersey, & Iverson, 1987.
Harrison, J. A., Mullen, P. D., & Green, L. W. (1992). A meta-analysis of
studies of the Health Belief Model. Health Education Research, 7,
107-16.
Janz, N. K., Champion, V. L., & Strecher, V. J. (2002). The Health Belief
Model. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer, & F. M. Lewis (Eds.). Health behavior and
health education: Theory, research, and practice. 3rd ed. (pp. 45-66). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mullen, P. D., Hersey, J., & Iverson, D. C. (1987). Health behavior models
compared. Social Science and Medicine 24, 973-81.
17>18.
Most recent
examples of Health Belief Model applications are cited in the series
of endnotes (19- 30) to follow, by health issue, settings or populations. For more
extensive and earlier bibliographic references on applications and tests of the
Health Belief Model in each of these and other areas, see the previous
editions of this book (Green & Kreuter, 1991, pp.156-7; 1999, pp. 162-3), or
Harrison, Mullen, & Green, 1992; and Janz, Champion, & Strecher, 2002. For a
critique of this and several other social cognition models used widely in health
planning (theory
of reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and protection motivation
theory), see
Ogden, 2003.
Green, L. W., & Kreuter,
M. W. (1991). Health promotion planning: An educational and environmental
approach, 2nd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Co.
Green, L.W., & Kreuter, M.W. (1999b). Health promotion planning: An
educational and ecological approach, 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA:
Mayfield Publishing Co.
Ogden, J. (2003). Some
problems with social cognition models: a pragmatic and conceptual analysis.
Health
Psychology, 22, 424-8.
19. Breast cancer screening and mammography
(Allen, Bastani, et al., 2002; Oliver-Bazquez et al., 2002; Parten & slater,
2003).
Allen, B., Jr., Bastani, R.,
Bazargan, S., & Leonard, E. (2002). Assessing screening mammography
utilization in an urban area. Journal of the National Medical Association,
94, 5-14.
Oliver-Vazquez, M., Sanchez-Ayendez,
M., Suarez-Perez, E., Velez-Almodovar, H., & Arroyo-Calderon, Y. (2002).
Breast cancer health promotion model for older Puerto Rican women: Results of
a pilot programme. Health Promotion International, 17, 3-11.
Partin, M. R., & Slater, J.
S. (2003).
Promoting repeat mammography use: Insights from a systematic needs assessment.
Health Education and Behavior, 30, 97-112.
20. Cervical cancer screening (Austin et
al., 2002; Kahn et al., 2001; Lee, 2000; Michielutte et al., 2001).
Austin, L. T., Ahmad, F.,
McNally, M. J., & Stewart, D. E. (2002). Breast and cervical cancer screening
in Hispanic women: A literature review using the Health Belief Model.
Women's Health Issues, 12, 122-128.
Kahn, J. A., Goodman, E., Slap, G. B., Huang, B., & Emans, S. J.
(2001). Intention to return for
Papanicolaou smears in adolescent girls and young women.
Pediatrics. 108(2, Part 1), 333-41.
Lee, M. C. (2000). Knowledge,
barriers, and motivators related to cervical cancer screening among
Korean-American women: A focus group approach. Cancer
Nursing, 23, 168-75.
*Michielutte, R., Cunningham, L. E., Sharp, P. C., Dignan, M. B., & Burnette,
V. D. (2001). Effectiveness of a
cancer education program for women attending rural public health departments
in North Carolina. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in
the Community, 22, 23-42.
21. Colorectal cancer screening exams (Jacobs,
2002; Manne et al., 2002; 2003; Rawl et al., 2002).
Jacobs, L.A. (2002).
Health Beliefs of First-degree Relatives of Individuals With Colorectal Cancer
and Participation in Health Maintenance Visits: A Population-based Survey
Cancer Nursing, 25, 251-65.
Manne, S., Markowitz, A., Winawer, S., Guillem, J., Meropol, N. J., Haller,
D., Jandorf, L., Rakowski, W., Babb, J., & Duncan, T. (2003).
Understanding intention to
undergo colonoscopy among intermediate-risk siblings of colorectal cancer
patients: A test of a mediational model. Preventive Medicine,
36, 71-84.
Manne, S., Markowitz, A., Winawer, S., Meropol, N. J., Haller, D., Rakowski,
W., Babb, J., & Jandorf, L.
(2002). Correlates of colorectal cancer screening compliance and stage of
adoption among siblings of individuals with early onset colorectal cancer.
Health Psychology, 21, 3-15.
Rawl, S. M., Menon, U., & Champion, V. (2002).
Colorectal cancer screening: An
overview of current trends. Nursing Clinics of North America,
37, 225-245.
22. Prostate cancer screening exams (Clark-Tasker
& Wade, 2002).
Clarke-Tasker, V. A., & Wade, R.
(2002). What we thought we knew: African American males'
perceptions of prostate cancer and screening methods. ABNF
Journal, 13, 56-60.
23. Skin cancer, sun exposure, and sun-protection
behavior (Cokkinides et al., 2001; Grubbs & Tabano, 2000).
Cokkinides, V.E.; Johnston-Davis, K.; Weinstock, M.; O'Connell, M.C.;
Kalsbeek, W.; Thun, M.J.; Wingo, P.A.
(2001). Sun exposure and sun-protection behaviors and attitudes
among U.S. youth, 11 to 18 years of age. Preventive Medicine,
33, 141-51.
Grubbs, L. M., & Tabano, M. (2000).
Use of sunscreen in health care professionals: The Health
Belief Model. Cancer Nursing, 23, 164-7.
24. Cardiovascular disease prevention, risk reduction
(Ali, 2002; Docherty, 2001).
Ali, N. S. (2002). Prediction
of coronary heart disease preventive behaviors in women: A test of the Health
Belief Model. Women and Health, 35, 83-96.
Docherty, B. (2001).
Education campaigns in coronary heart disease. Professional
Nurse, 16, 1048-51.
25. Diabetes prevention (Burnet, Plaut et al.,
2002; Wdowik, Kendall et al., 2000).
Burnet, D., Plaut, A., Courtney, R., & Chin, M. H.
(2002). Practical model for
preventing type 2 diabetes in minority youth. Diabetes
Educator. 28, 779-95.
Wdowik, M. J., Kendall, P. A., Harris, M. A., & Keim, K. S.
(2000). Development and
evaluation of an intervention program: Control on campus.
Diabetes Educator, 26, 95-104.
26. Diet, exercise, physical activity, weight control,
usually related to the two previous categories of cardiovascular disease
prevention, risk reduction, and diabetes control (Ali, 2002; Burnet, Plaut, et
al., 2002; Chew, Palmer, et al. 2002; Murimi, 2001; Rosal, Ebbeling, et al.,
2001; Shephard, 2002; Soto Mas et al., 2000).
Chew, F., Palmer, S., Slonska, Z., & Subbiah, K.
(2002). Enhancing health
knowledge, health beliefs, and health behavior in Poland through a health
promoting television program series. Journal of Health
Communication, 7, 179-96.
Murimi, M. (2001). Short-term
nutrition intervention increases calcium intake among 45-54 year old women.
Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly, 20(3):1-12.
Rosal, M. C., Ebbeling,
C. B., Lofgren, I., Ockene, J. K., Ockene, I. S., & Hebert, J. R. (2001).
Facilitating dietary change: The Patient-centered Counseling Model. Journal
of the American Dietetic Association. 101, 332-38,341.
Shephard, R. J.
(2002). Whistler 2001: A
Health Canada/CDC Conference on Communicating Physical Activity and Health
Messages: Science Into Practice.
American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, 23, 221-5.
Soto Mas, F. G., Kane, W. M., Going, S., Ford, E. S., Marshall, J. R.,
Staten, L. K., & Smith, J. E.
(2000). Camine con Nosotros: Connecting theory and practice for
promoting physical activity among Hispanic women. Health
Promotion Practice, 1, 178-87.
27. Immigrants, minority, and cross-cultural health
(Burnet et al., 2002; Hyman & Guruge, 2002; Lee, 2000; Poss, 2001; Soto Mas,
Kane, et al., 2000).
Hyman, I., & Guruge, S.
(2002). Review of theory and health promotion strategies for new immigrant
women. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 93, 183-7.
Poss, J. E. (2001).
Developing a new model for cross-cultural research: Synthesizing the Health
Belief Model and the Theory of Reasoned Action. Advances in
Nursing Science, 23, 1-15.
28. Multiple risk behaviors (Chew, Palmer, et al.,
2002; Docherty, 2001; Strecher, Wang, et al., 2002).
Strecher, V., Wang, C., Derry, H., Wildenhaus, K., & Johnson, C.
(2002). Tailored interventions
for multiple risk behaviors. Health Education Research, 17,
619-26.
29. Osteoporosis (Murimi, 2001; Wallace, 2002).
Wallace, L. S. (2002).
Osteoporosis prevention in college women: Application of the expanded Health
Belief Model. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26,
163-72.
30. School and college health programs (Wdowik et
al., 2000; Winnail et al., 2002).
Winnail, S. D., Geiger, B. F., & Nagy, S.
(2002). Why don't parents participate in school health
education? American Journal of Health Education, 33,
10-4.
44>31. Use of Health Belief Model as a guide to needs assessment in
relation to the predisposing factors within the Precede-Proceed Model (e.g.,
Lux & Petosa, 1993; Wong & Seet, 1997).
45>32.
Ways
of integrating the Health Belief Model and other specific cognitive and
affective models with PRECEDE-PROCEED. Neumark-Sztainer & Story, 1996;
Skinner & Kreuter, 1997, esp. pp. 56–59. Street, Gold, & Manning
recommend “an integrative
framework for health promotion” such as Precede-Proceed to organize and expand
the more specific theories and models, including Health Belief Model, Efficacy
Theory (Social Cognitive Theory), Attribution Theory, the Theory of Reasoned
Action and the Transtheoretical Model. Some of these will be discussed from this
perspective later in this chapter.
Street, R. L., Jr., Gold, W. R., & Manning T. (1997). Health promotion and
interactive technology: Theoretical applications and future directions. Mahwah
NJ & London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
esp. pp.54-65.
(19)>33. The Health Belief Model and other predisposing factors are
sometimes incorporated into other needs assessment, communication, or patient
education and counseling models (Airhihenbuwa, 1995; Burnet et al., 2002; Rosal et al., 2001; Strecher, Wang, et al., 2002; Wong & Seet, 1997), although
the use of the term "model" varies across these applications, where one model is
often seen as a subset or component of another model, as with the Health Belief
Model within the predisposing component of the Precede-Proceed Model. Some are
mainly conceptual models to explain or predict, as with the Health Belief Model,
others are that plus procedural or stage models for systematic application of
the concepts, as with Precede-Proceed, Airhihenbuwa's PEN-3 (Person- model, and
the Patient-Centered Counseling Model (Poss, 2001; Rosal et al., 2001).
Airhihenbuwa, C. O. (1995). Health and culture: Beyond the Western
paradigm. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 152 p., 1995.
Rosal, M. C.,
Ebbeling, C. B., Lofgren, I., Ockene, J. K., Ockene, I. S., & Hebert, J. R.
(2001). Facilitating dietary change: The Patient-centered Counseling Model.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 101, 332-38,341.
Wong,
T. Y., & Seet, B. (1997)
A behavioral analysis of eye protection use by soldiers. Military
Medicine, 162, 744-8.
45>34
Relating
beliefs to other predisposing factors in the Precede model without using the
Health Belief Model (H.
Becker, Hendrickson, & Shaver, 1998), e.g., using Protection Motivation Theory introduced by
R. W. Rogers (1975) and recently applied to genetic counseling by (Helmes,
2003), amblyopia (Norman et al., 2003), and HIV-AIDS (Bengel et al., 1996). This
theory contains the same essential elements as the Health Belief Model, but
added a dimension of self-efficacy to the original HBM. Some of the
architects of the evolving HBM later suggested adding self-efficacy to that
Model as well (Rosenstock, Strecher, & Becker, 1988).
Bengel, J., Belz-merk, M., Farin, E.(1996). The role of
risk perception and efficacy cognitions in the prediction of HIV-related
preventive behavior and condom use. Psychology and Health, 11, 505-25.
Helmes, A.W. (2002). Application of the protection
motivation theory to genetic testing for breast cancer risk. Preventive
Medicine, 35, 453-62.
Norman, P., Searle, A.,
Harrad, R., & Vedhara, K. (2003). Predicting adherence to eye patching in
children with amblyopia: An application of protection motivation theory.
British Journal of Health Psychology, 8(Pt 1), 67-82.
Rogers, R. W. (1975).
A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal
of Psychology, 91, 93-114.
Rosal, M. C.,
Ebbeling, C. B., Lofgren, I., Ockene, J. K., Ockene, I. S., & Hebert, J. R.
(2001). Facilitating dietary change: The Patient-centered Counseling Model.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 101, 332-38,341.
Rosenstock, I. M.,
Strecher, V., & Becker, M. H. (1988). Social Learning Theory and the Health
Belief Model. Health Education Quarterly, 15, 175-83.
47>35. Fear as
motivation, or as barrier to action if belief in self-efficacy is lacking
(Cho,
2003; Helmes, 2002; Norman et al., 2003; van der Pligt, 1998).
Cho, H. (2003). Communicating risk without creating unintended effects.
American Journal of Health Studies, 18, 104-10.
48>36. Competing
values, pro-health vs. non-health. (Lalonde,
1974, p. 8; see also Resnicow, Braithwaite, et al., 2002, esp. pp. 494-495 on
differing core values of cultural or ethnic groups,
and pp. 500-502 on core values of individualism vs. communalism, and of
religiosity; Franzini et al., 2002, esp. pp 302-304, and Aguirre-Molina et al.,
2001, pp. 77-178; and Gordon-Larsen et al., 2003, on how these values vary within Hispanic populations depending
on their degrees of acculturation and
stage of life; and Huff & Kline, 1999, for cultural assessment frameworks
and tools to gauge values within cultural or
multicultural settings). For variations in physical activity within
African-American and other ethnic populations, for example, see several analyses
in a special issue of
American Journal of Preventive Medicine: Eyler, Matson-Koffman,
& Macera, 2003.
Aguirre-Molina, M., Molina, C. W., & Zambrana, R. E. (Eds.). (2001).
Health issues in the Latino community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Eyler, A. A., Matson-Koffman,
D., & Macera, C. (Eds.). (2003). Physical activity in women from diverse
racial/ethnic groups: Environmental, policy, and cultural factors. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, Whole issue 3, Supplement 1: 1-105.
Franzini, L., Ribble, J. C., & Keddie, A. M. (2002). Understanding the
Hispanic paradox. In T. A. LaVeist (Ed.). Race, ethnicity, and health: A
public health reader (pp. 280-310). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gordon-Larsen, P., Mullan Harris, K., Ward, D. S., & Popkin, B. M. (2003).
Acculturation and overweight-related behaviors among Hispanic immigrants to
the US: the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Social
Science & Medicine, 57, 2023-34.
Huff, R. M., & Kline, M. V. (Eds.). The cultural assessment framework. In
R. M. Huff, & M. V. Kline (Eds.). Promoting health in multicultural
populations: A handbook for practitioners (pp. 481-499). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Resnicow, K., Braithwaite, R. L., Dilorio, C., & Glanz, K. (2002). Applying
theory to culturally diverse and unique populations. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer,
& F. M. Lewis (Eds.). Health behavior and health education: Theory,
research, and Practice. 3rd ed. (pp. 485-509). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
49>37. This approach to audience segmentation and analysis is central to
the marketing and social marketing fields. For examples of this application
within the Precede model, see Bonaguro & Miaoulis, 1983; De Pietro, 1987; esp.
pp. 105–107; Glanz & Rimer, 1995; Hall & Best, 1997; Kotler & Roberto, 1989, pp.
282–94; Lefebvre et al., 1995; Miaoulis & Bonaguro, 1980–1981; Sleet, 1987; J.
A. Smith & Scammon, 1987. Recent reviews show a growing convergence in the
use of social marketing methods of formative research with the traditions of
community health in participatory research and planning, e.g., Bryant, et
al., 2000; CDC, 1999; Neiger, et al., 2003.
Bryant, C. A., Forthofer, M. S., McCormack Brown, K. R.,
Landis, D. C., McDermott, R. J. (2000). Community-based prevention marketing:
The next steps in disseminating behavior change. American Journal of Health
Behavior, 24, 61-68.
CDC (1999). CDCynergy content and framework workbook.
Atlanta: Office of Communication, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Hall,
N., & Best, J. A. (1997).
Health promotion practice and public health: Challenge for the 1990s. Canadian
Journal of Public Health, 88, 409-15.
Neiger, B. L.,
Thackeray, R., Barnes, M. D., McKenzie, J. F. (2003). Positioning social
marketing as a planning process for health education. American Journal of
Health Studies, 18, 75-80.
Sleet, D. A.
(1987). Health education approaches to motor vehicle injury prevention.
Public Health Reports, 102, 606-8.
Wechsler, H., Basch, C. E., Zybert, P.
& Shea, S. (1998). Promoting the selection of low-fat milk in elementary
school cafeterias in an inner-city Latino community: Evaluation of an
intervention. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 427-33.
50>38.
Definition of attitude in psychology.
Mucchielli, 1970,
p. 30.
51>39.
Relation of attitude to beliefs.
Kirscht, 1974.
52>40.
Relation of attitudes and beliefs to values.
Rokeach, 1970.
53>41. The
Semantic Differential as a tool to measure attitudes.
Osgood, Cuci, &
Tannenbaum, 1961.
54>42.
Self-efficacy applied in health,
Baranowski, Perry, & Parcel, 2002; from some of the earliest applications in
patient self-care education (e.g., Bowler & Morisky, 1983; Green, Levine, &
Deeds, 1975; Lorig & Laurin, 1985); and broader school and community health
education (Parcel & Baranowski, 1981; Strecher, DeVillis, Becker, & Rosenstock,
1986), to recent applications in chronic disease self-management (e.g., Lorig &
Holman, 2003), risk-reduction and health promotion (Petosa et al., 2003).
Baranowski, T., Perry, C. L., & Parcel , G. S. (2002). How individuals,
environments, and health behavior interact: Social Cognitive Theory. In K.
Glanz, F. M. Lewis, and B. K. Rimer (Eds.). Health behavior and health
education: Theory, research, and practice. 3rd edition (pp.
165-84). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Lorig K. R., Holman, H. (2003). Self-management
education: history, definition, outcomes, and mechanisms. Annals of
Behavioral Medicine, 26, 1-7.
Petosa R. L., Suminski, R., Hortz, B. (2003). Predicting
vigorous physical activity using social cognitive theory. American Journal
of Health Behavior, 2003, 27, 301-10.
57>43. Ottawa Charter declaration of health promotion's
purpose, consistent with self-efficacy as a central mediator, if not outcome,
for health promotion.
First
International Conference on Health Promotion, 1986.
58>44. Albert
Bandura's concept of self-efficacy from his original Social Learning Theory,
later named Social Cognitive Theory. Bandura, 1977; 1982; 1986;
2001; 2002; 2003. For a commentary on the significance of Bandura’s work for the
health field, see Green, 2004.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanisms in human agency. American
Psychologist 37, 122-47.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social
cognitive theory.
Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic
perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.
Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory. In L. Breslow, et al. (Eds.).
Encyclopedia of public health, vol. 4. (pp. 1121-1122). New York,
Macmillan Reference USA.
Bandura, A.
(2004). ... Health Education and Behavior, 31, --[in press, title & pp to
follow]
Green, L. W.
(2004). Introduction of Albert Bandura for the Healthtrac Foundation Prize in
Health Education. Health Education and Behavior, 30, --[in press, final
title & pp to follow]
59>45.
Self-efficacy's cognitive dimensions in coping with relapse in complex
behavioral changes. E.g., Ausems et al., 2003; Dijkstra, & Borland, 2003;
Fiorentine, & Hillhouse, 2003; McAuley et al., 2003; Mermelstein, 2003; Scholes
et al., 2003.
Ausems, M., Mesters, I., van Breukelen, G., & De Vries,
H. (2003). Do Dutch 11-12 years olds who never smoke, smoke experimentally or
smoke regularly have different demographic backgrounds and perceptions of
smoking? European Journal of Public Health, 13,
160-7.
Dijkstra A, Borland R. (2003). Residual outcome
expectations and relapse in ex-smokers. Health Psychology, 22, 340-6.
Fiorentine, R., & Hillhouse, M. P. (2003). Replicating
the Addicted-Self Model of recovery.
Addictive Behavior, 28, 1063-80.
McAuley, E., Jerome, G. J., Elavsky, S., Marquez, D. X.,
& Ramsey, S. N. (2003). Predicting long-term maintenance of physical activity
in older adults. Preventive Medicine, 37, 110-8.
Mermelstein, R., Hedeker, D., & Wong, S. C. (2003).
Extended telephone counseling for smoking cessation: Does content matter?
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 565-74.
Scholes, D., McBride, C. M., Grothaus, L., Civic, D.,
Ichikawa, L. E., Fish, L. J., & Yarnall, K. S. (2003). A tailored minimal
self-help intervention to promote condom use in young women: results from a
randomized trial. AIDS, 17, 1547-56.
63>46. Self-efficacy variable in planning media-based
programs. E.g., Levin et al., 2002; Mermelstein et al., 2003; Renger et al.,
2002.
Levin, S., Martin, M. W., McKenzie, T. L., & DeLouise, A.
C. (2002). Assessment of a pilot video's effect on physical activity and heart
health for young children. Family and Community Health, 25, 10-7.
Renger, R., Steinfelt, V., & Lazarus, S. (2002).
Assessing the effectiveness of a community-based media campaign targeting
physical inactivity. Family and Community Health, 25, 18-30.
64,65,66>47. Measurement instruments for self-efficacy
in health areas. E.g., Lorig, Stewart, Ritter,
Gonzalez, et al., 1996 (including Spanish translations); Love, Davoli, & Thurmon,
1996.
48. Expectations and
expectancies, other predisposing factors in Social Cognitive Theory.
Bandura, 1986, as defined by Baranowski, Perry, & Parcel, 2002, p. 169; see
their table showing implications of each of these and the other elements of
Social Cognitive Theory for the design of health program interventions.
66>49. Behavioral intention and other predisposing
factors from the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior.
First introduced by Fishbein (1967) in the face of growing discontent with
the inconsistencies of "attitude" as a construct to predict and explain behavior
(e.g., Green, 1970b). He and Ajzen distinguished between attitude toward an
object of behavior and attitude toward the behavior itself, which they reframed
as "evaluation of behavioral outcomes" and "behavioral beliefs" (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975). In the Theory of Planned Behavior, Ajzen and colleagues added a
dimension akin to self-efficacy, which they called "perceived behavioral
control," a product of "control beliefs and "perceived power," to account for
situations over which people do not have complete volitional control (Ajzen &
Madden, 1986). For reviews of the evolution and earlier applications of this
pair of theories in health, see Godin & Kok, 1996; Montano & Kasprzyk, 2002.
Ajzen, I., & Madden, J. T. (1986). Prediction of goal-directed behavior:
Attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 453-74.
Fishbein, M. (Ed.). (1967). Readings in attitude
theory and measurement. New York: Wiley.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and
behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Godin, G., &
Kok, G. The Theory of Planned Behavior: A review of its applications to
health-related behaviors. American Journal of Health Promotion, 80,
467-8.
67-73>50. Applications in health programs of the
concepts from the Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned Behavior.
See previous edition (Green & Kreuter, 1999, p. 167), for a range of
applications prior to 1999. Armitage & Conner, 2001, conducted a meta-analysis
of 185 studies that had applied the broader Theory of Planned Behavior and were
published before 1997. More recent applications in health studies and programs,
besides those on HIV and STD prevention reviewed in detail by Albarracin
et al., 2001 and by Montano & Kasprzyk, 2002, include breastfeeding
(Gosken, 2002); drug abuse (Morrison et al., 2002) oral health (Syrjala
et al., 2002); physical activity (Mummary et al., 2000; Trost et al.,
2002); smoking prevention (McGahee et al., 2000).
Albarracin, D., Johnson, B. T., Fishbein, M., &
Muellerleile, P. A. (2001). Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior
as models of condom use: a meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 127, 142-61.
Armitage CJ, Conner M. (2001). Efficacy of the Theory of
Planned Behaviour: a meta-analytic review. British Journal of Social
Psychology, 40(Pt 4), 471-99.
Goksen, F. (2002). Normative vs. attitudinal considerations in
breastfeeding behavior: Multifaceted social influences in a developing country
context. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 1743-53.
McGahee, T. W., Kemp, V., & Tingen M. (2000). A
theoretical model for smoking prevention studies in preteen children.
Pediatric Nursing, 26, 135-8, 141.
Morrison, D. M., Golder, S., Keller, T. E., & Gillmore,
M. R. (2002). The theory of reasoned action as a model of marijuana use: tests
of implicit assumptions and applicability to high-risk young women.
Psychology and Addictive Behavior, 16, 212-24.
Mummery, W. K., Spence, J. C., & Hudec, J. C. (2000).
Understanding physical activity intention in Canadian school children and
youth: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Research Quarterly
of Exercise and Sport, 71, 116-24.
Syrjala, A. M., Niskanen, M. C., & Knuuttila, M. L..
(2002). The theory of reasoned action in describing tooth brushing, dental
caries and diabetes adherence among diabetic patients.
Journal of Clinical Periodontology, 29, 427-32.
Trost, S. G., Pate, R. R., Dowda, M., Ward, D. S.,
Felton, G., & Saunders R. (2002). Psychosocial correlates of physical activity
in white and African-American girls.Journal of Adolescent Health, 31,
226-33.
74,75>51. Combination of the Theory of Reasoned Action
with PRECEDE, DeVries & Kok, 1986. Other applications of the
behavioral intention concept within PRECEDE include DeVries, Dijkstra, &
Kuhlman, 1988; Keintz et al., 1988; Kraft, 1988; Liburd & Bowie, 1989; P. D.
Mullen, Hersey, & Iverson, 1987; Ostwald & Rothenberger, 1985; Padilla &
Bulcavage, 1991; Salazar, 1985; J. A. Smith & Scammon, 1987.
DeVries, H., Dijkstra, M. & Kuhlman, P. (1988). Self-efficacy: The third
factor besides attitude and subjective norm as a predictor of behavioral
intentions. Health Education Research, 3, 273-82.
Keintz, M. K.,
Rimer, B. K., Fleisher, L., & Engstrom, P. (1988). Educating older adults
about their increased cancer risk. Gerontologist, 28, 487-90.
Kraft, D. P.
(1988). The prevention and treatment of alcohol problems on a college campus.
Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 34, 37-51.
Liburd, L. C. & Bowie, J. V. (1989). Intentional teenage pregnancy: A
community diagnosis and action plan. Health Education, 20, 33-8.
Mullen, P. D., Hersey, J., & Iverson, D. C. (1987). Health behavior models
compared. Social Science and Medicine 24, 973-81.
Ostwald, S. K.,
& Rothenberger, J. (1985). Development of a testicular self-examination
program for college men. Journal of the
American College
Health, 33,
234-9.
Padilla, G. V., & Bulcavage, L. M. (1991). Theories used in patient / health
education. Seminars in Oncology Nursing, 7, 87-96.
Salazar, M. K. (1985). Dealing with hypertension: Using theory to promote
behavioral change. AAOHN Journal, 43, 313-8.
Smith, J. A., & Scammon, D. L. (1987). A market segment analysis of adult
physical activity: Exercise beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behaviors,
Advances in Nonprofit Marketing, vol. 2. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press Inc.
52. Origins
of the theories of change and psychotherapy initially reviewed for the
Transtheoretical Model. Prochaska, 1979.
Prochaska, J. O. (1979). Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoretical
analysis. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole.
53. Empirical studies of smokers to derive stages
of change for the Transtheoretical Model.
DiClemente &
Prochaska, 1982; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983.
DiClemente, C. C., & Prochaska, J. O. (1982). Self-change and therapy change
of smoking behavior: A comparison of process of change in cessation and
maintenance. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 133-42.
Prochaska, J. O.
&DiClemente, C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change in smoking:
towards an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 5, 390-5.
54.
Applications of the Stages of Change constructs with PRECEDE. Grueniger,
1995; Grueninger, Duffy, & Goldstein, 1995; Haber, 1994; Hubball, 1996; Koivula
& Paunonen, 1998; Neumark-Sztainer, & Story, 1996.
Grueninger, U. J. (1995). Arterial
hypertension: Lessons from patient education, Patient Education and
Counseling, 26, 37-55. , 1995.
Grueninger, U. J., Duffy, F. D., & Goldstein, M. G. (1995). Patient education
in the medical encounter: How to facilitate learning, behavior change, and
coping. In M. Lipkin, Jr., S. M. Putnam, A. Lazare (Eds.). The medical
interview: Clinical care, education, and research (pp.
122-33).
Bern: Mack Lipkin, Jr., MD.
Haber,
D. (1994). Medical screenings and health assessments. In D. Haber (Ed.),
Health promotion and aging (pp.41-76). New York, NY: Springer Publishing
Company.
Hubball, H. (1996).
Development and Evaluation of a Worksite Health Promotion Program: Application
of Critical Self-Directed Learning for Exercise Behaviour Change.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Vancouver, B. C.: University of British
Columbia, Faculty of Graduate Studies, Institute of Health Promotion Research.
Koivula,
M., & Paunonen,
M
(1998). Smoking habits among Finnish middle-aged men: experiences and
attitudes. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 27: 327-334.
Neumark-Sztainer, D, Story, M. (1996).
The use of health behavior theory in nutrition counseling. Topics in
Clinical Nutrition, 11, 60-73.
55. Other
recent applications of the Transtheoretical Model in health behavior studies or
program planning. For a description of the model and recent reviews of its
application in health, see Prochaska, Redding, & Evers, 2002. More recent
applications include condom use in HIV prevention (Gullete & Turner, 2003);
hypertension control (Chang, McAlister, et al., 2003), mammography adoption
(Champion, & Skinner, 2003); physical activity (Schumann, Estabrooks, et al.,
2003); self-management of pain (Habib, Morrissey, & Helmes, 2003); smoking
cessation (Andersen, Keller, & McGowan, 1999).
Andersen, S., Keller, C., & McGowan, N. (1999). Smoking
cessation: The state of the science. Online Journal of Knowledge Synthesis
in Nursing, 22, 6-9.
Champion, V. L., & Skinner, C. S. (2003). Differences in
perceptions of risk, benefits, and barriers by stage of mammography adoption.
Journal of Women's Health, 12, 277-86.
Chang, L., McAlister, A. L., Taylor, W. C., & Chan, W.
(2003). Behavioral change for blood pressure control among urban and rural
adults in Taiwan. Health Promotion International, 18, 219-28.
Gullette, D. L., & Turner, J. G. (2003). Pros and cons of
condom use among gay and bisexual men as explored via the internet.
Jounal of Community Health Nursing, 20, 161-77.
Habib, S., Morrissey, S. A., & Helmes, E. (2003).
Readiness to adopt a self-management approach to pain: evaluation of the pain
stages of change model in a non-pain-clinic sample.
Pain, 104, 283-90.
Schumann, A., Estabrooks, P. A., Nigg, C. R., & Hill, J. (2003).
Validation of the stages of change with mild, moderate, and strenuous physical
activity behavior, intentions, and self-efficacy.
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, 363-5.
56. Stages of Change applied to organizational change.
J. M. Prochaska, Prochaska, & Lavesque, 2001.
Prochaska, J. M., Prochaska, J. O., & Levesque, D. A.
(2001). A transtheoretical approach to changing organizations.
Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 28, 247-61.
57. Existing skills in resisting peer pressure can
predispose to not smoking, e.g.,
Engels, Knibbe, &
de Haan, 1997; but success in changing these skills with resulting reduction in
susceptibility to taking up drinking or other substance abuse is mixed (Clayton
et al., 1996; Dedobbeleer, & Desjardins, 2001; Donaldson, Graham, et al., 1995).
Clayton, R. R., Cattarello, A. M., & Johnstone, B. M.
(1996). The effectiveness of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (project DARE):
5-year follow-up results. Preventive Medicine, 25, 307-18.
*Dedobbeleer, N., & Desjardins, S. (2001). Outcomes of an
ecological and participatory approach to prevent alcohol and other drug
"abuse" among multiethnic adolescents. Substance Use and Misuse, 36,
1959-91.
Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., Piccinin, A. M., &
Hansen, W. B. (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use:
Evidence for beneficial and potentially harmful effects in public schools and
in private Catholic schools. Health Psychology, 14, 291-300.
58. Programs that seek to build new
health-related social skills in youth. D. R. Black, Tobler, & Sciacca, 1998. For reviews of the studies in this vein, see Allott,
Paxton, & Leonard, 1999; Flay, 1987; Gerstein & Green, 1993, pp. 76–117; Midford, Munro, et
al., 2002.
Allott, R., Paxton, R., & Leonard, R. (1999). Drug
education: a review of British Government policy and evidence on
effectiveness. Health Education Research, 14,
491-505.
Black, D.R., Tobler, N., & Sciacca, J. P. (1998). Peer
helping/involvement: An efficacious way of meeting the challenge of reducing
illicit drug use? Journal of School Health, 68, 87-93.
Flay, B. R. (1987). Social psychological approaches to smoking prevention:
Review and recommendations. In W. B. Ward and P. D. Mullen (Eds.). Advances
in Health Education and Promotion, vol. 2 (pp. 121-80). Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.
Midford, R., Munro, G., McBride, N., Snow, P., &
Ladzinski, U. (2002). Principles that underpin effective school-based drug
education. Journal of Drug Education, 32, 363-86.
Enabling
Factors
78>59. Skills as enabling factors. See, for example, the 12 behavioral
outcomes described as skills needed by an asthmatic child, in Bartholomew,
Parcel, Kok, & Gottlieb, 2001, Fig. 2-5, p. 35; or the 22 skills contributing to
self-management ability in children and adolescents outlined by Thoresen &
Kirmil-Gray, 1983. Some applications of PRECEDE in assessing needs for enabling
skills include projects in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (Bailey, Richards, et al., 1987; Fireman,
Friday, et al., 1981; Taggart et al., 1991; Windsor, Green, & Roseman, 1980); cystic fibrosis (Bartholomew, Seilheimer, et al., 1989);
preventing back pain (Daltroy, Iversen, et al., 1993);
professional continuing education and training for health practitioners
(Bennett, 1977; Hubball, 1996; Lomas, 1993; Mann & Putnam, 1989, 1990; Mann,
Putnam, et al., 1990; McKell, 1996; Ottoson, 1995); childbirth and parenting
skills (O'Meara, 1993); child health and survival (Schumann & Mosley, 1994);
alcohol (Villas, Mottinger, & Cardenas, 1996); smoking cessation in pregnant
women (Windsor, 1986); increasing condom use among sex workers (M. L. Wong,
Chan, Koh, & Wong, 1994–95, 1996; 1998; 2000), and breast self-examination
skills (Worden, Solomon, et al., 1990).
Bailey,
W. C., Richards,
J. M.,
Manzella, B. A., Windsor,
R. A.,
Brooks, C. M., & Soong,
S. J.
(1987).
Promoting self-management in adults with asthma--An overview of the UAB
program. Health Education Quarterly, 14, 345-55.
Bartholomew, L. K., Seilheimer,
D. K.,
Parcel, G. S., Spinelli,
S. H.,
& Pumariega,
A. J.
(1989).
Planning patient education for cystic fibrosis: Application of a diagnostic
framework. Patient Education and Counseling, 13, 57-68.
Daltroy, Iversen, et al., see
endnote 11 above.
Mann,
K.V., & Putnam, R.W. (1989). Physicians' perceptions of their role in
cardiovascular risk reduction. Preventive Medicine, 18, 45-58.
O'Meara, C. (1993). An evaluation of consumer perspectives of childbirth and
parenting education. Midwifery 9, 210-9.
Taggart, V. S., Zuckerman, A. E., Sly, R. M., Steinmueller, C., Newman, G.,
O'Brien, R. W., Schneider, S., & Bellanti, J. A.(1991). You can control
asthma: evaluation of an asthma education program for hospitalized inner-city
children. Patient Education and Counseling,
17, 35-47.
Windsor, R. A. (1986). An application of the PRECEDE Model for planning and
evaluating education methods for pregnant smokers. Hygie: International
Journal of Health Education 5 (3): 38-43.
Windsor, R. A., Green, L. W., & Roseman, J. M. (1980). Health promotion and
maintenance for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A review.
Journal of Chronic Disease, 33, 5-12.
Wong,
M. L., Chan,
K. W. R., &
Koh, D. (1998). A sustainable behavioral intervention to increase condom use
and reduce gonorrhea among sex workers in Singapore: 2-Year follow-up.
Preventive Medicine, 27, 891-900.
Wong M.
L., Chan, R., Wee, S. (2000). Sex workers’ perspectives on condom use for oral
sex with clients: a qualitative study. Health Education and Behavior
27, 502-16.
Worden, J. K., Flynn, B. S. Geller, B. M., et al.
(1988). Development of a
smoking prevention mass-media program using diagnostic and formative research.
Preventive Medicine, 17, 531-58.
Worden, J. K.,
Soloman, L. J., Flynn, B. S., Costanza, M. C., Foster, R. S., Dorwaldt, A. L.,
& Weaver, S. O. (1990).
A community-wide program in breast self-examination training and maintenance.
Preventive Medicine, 19, 254-69.
79>60. Social-action or collective action skills
and capacity. See Chapters 5, 7, and 8 for more on these social-action
skills.
61. Enabling factors at the population level expressed
as collective efficacy, community capacity, and social capital. See, e.g.,
Chaskin et al., 2001; Crisp et al., 2000; Poland, 2000, and others cited in
endnote 40 of Chapter 2.
Chaskin, R.J., Brown, P., Venkatesh, S., & Vidal, A. (2001).
Building community capacity. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Crisp, B. R., Swerissen, H., & Duckett, S. J. (2000).
Four approaches to capacity building in
health: consequences for measurement and accountability.
Health Promotion International, 15, 99-107.
Poland, B. D. (2000).
Social capital, social cohesion, community capacity, and community
empowerment: Variations on a theme? In Poland, B.D., Green, L.W.,
& Rootman, I. (Eds.). Settings in health promotion: Linking
theory and practice (pp. 301-307). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Bertera, R. L. (1990). Planning and implementing health promotion in the
workplace: A case study of the Du Pont Company experience. Health
Education Quarterly, 17, 307-27.
Bertera, R. L., Oehl,
L. K.,
&
Telepchak,
J. M.
(1990). Self-help versus group approaches to smoking cessation in the
workplace: Eighteen-month follow-up and cost analysis. American Journal
of Health Promotion, 4, 187-92.
Canto, M. T., Drury, T. F., Horowitz, A. M. (2001). Maryland dentists’
knowledge of oral cancer risk factors and diagnostic procedures. Health
Promotion Practice, 2, 255-62.
Canto, M. T., Goodman,
H. S.,
Horowitz,
A. M., Watson,
M. R.,
& Duran-Medina,
C.
(1998). Latino youths’ knowledge of oral cancer and use of tobacco and
alcohol. American Journal of Health Behavior, 22,
411-20.
Center for Health Promotion and Education (1987). Smoking control among
women: A CDC community intervention handbook (145 pp.). Atlanta,
GA:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Health and Human
Services.1987.
Dovell,
R. (2001).
Cigarette Smoking by Adolescents: Exploring a Hypothesis of Social
Marginalization. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia,
Institute of Health Promotion Research.
Gottlieb, N.
H., Eriksen, M. P., Lovato, C. Y., et al. (1990). Impact of a
restrictive work site smoking policy on smoking behavior, attitudes, and
norms. Journal of Occupational Medicine, 32, 20-3.
Gottlieb, N.
H., Lovato, C. Y., Weinstein, R., Green, L. W., & Eriksen, M. P. (1992). The
implementation of a restrictive worksite smoking policy in a large
decentralized organization. Health Education Quarterly, 19, 77-100.
Gottlieb, N. H., & Nelson, A. (1990). A systematic effort to reduce smoking
at the worksite. Health Education Quarterly, 17, 99-118.
Heywood, A., Firman, D., Sanson-Fisher, R., & Mudge, P. (1996). Correlates
of physician counseling associated with obesity and smoking. Preventive
Medicine, 25, 268-76.
Keintz, M. K., Rimer, B. K., Fleisher, L., Fox, L., & Engstrom, P. F.
(1988). Use of multiple data sources in planning a smoking cessation program
for a defined population. In P. F. Engstrom, P. N. Anderson, & L. E.
Mortenson (Eds.). Advances in Cancer Control: Cancer Control Research and
the Emergence of the Oncology Product Line (pp. 31-42). New York:
Alan R. Liss, Inc.
Keintz, M. K., Fleisher, L., & Rimer, B. K. (1994). Reaching mothers of
preschool-aged children with a targeted quit smoking intervention.
Journal of Community Health, 19, 25-40. [Results from Keintz et al.,
1988].
Koivula, M., & Paunonen, M. (1998). See endnote 54 above.
Lelong, N., Kaminski,
M.,
Chwalow,
J.,
Bean, K. & Subtil,
D. (1995). Attitudes
and behavior of pregnant women and health professionals towards alcohol and
tobacco consumption. Patient Education and Counseling, 25:
39-49.
Lipnickey, S. C. (1986). Application of the PRECEDE Model to a school-based
program of drug, alcohol and tobacco education. [microform] ERIC database
ED281126 Gov't Publications / Microforms Div. 12pp. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association (114th, Las Vegas,
NV, Sept. 28-Oct. 2, 1986).
Polcyn, M. M., Price, J. H., Jurs, S. G., & Roberts, S. M. (1991).
Utility of the
PRECEDE Model in differentiating users and nonusers of smokeless tobacco.
Journal of School Health, 61, 166-71.
Reid, D.,
Harris, J., Jacob, M., Davis, A. M., Randell, J. (1983). Smoking education
in the United Kingdom with special reference to England, Wales, and Northern
Ireland. In W.F. Forbes, R.C. Frecker, D. Nostbakken (Eds.).
Proceedings of the Fifth World Conference on Smoking and Health,
Winnipeg,
Canada,
1983, Volume 1 (pp. 355-360). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Council on
Smoking and Health.
Secker-Walker, R. H., Flynn, B. S., Solomon, P. M. (1996). Helping women quit smoking:
baseline observations for a community health education project. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12, 367-77.
Secker-Walker, R. H., Worden, J. K., Holland, R. R., Flynn, B. S., Detsky, A. S.
(1997).
A mass media program to prevent smoking among adolescents: costs and cost
effectiveness. Tobacco Control, 6, 207-12.
Smith, D. E., Alpers, M. P. (1984).
Cigarette smoking in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical
Research Monograph No. 7 Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical
Research, Dec. 1984, 83pp.
Sun,
W. Y., & Shun, J. (1995). Smoking behavior amongst different socioeconomic
groups in the workplace in the People's Republic of China. Health
Promotion International, 10, 261-6.
Tillgren, P., Haglund, B. J. A., Ainetdin, T., Thornqvist, E., Uhrbom, E. &
Holm, L-E. (1995). Effects of different intervention strategies in the
implementation of a nationwide tobacco “Quit and Win” contest in Sweden.
Tobacco Control, 4, 344-50.
Younoszai, T. M., Lohrmann, D. K., Seefeldt, C. A., & Greene, R. (1999).
Trends from 1987 to 1991 in alcohol, tobacco, and other drug (ATOD) use
among adolescents exposed to a school district-wide prevention program.
Journal of Drug Education, 29, 77-94.
64. Measures of enabling and other factors
(predisposing
and reinforcing) determining smokeless tobacco use.
Polcyn, Price,
Jurs, & Roberts, 1991.
82>65.
B. G. Simons-Morton, Brink, Parcel, et al., 1989. Other applications of
PRECEDE-PROCEED in assessing enabling factors and other determinants of
alcohol-related behavior in youth include Canto, Goodman, et al., 1998;
Dedobbeleer & Desjardins, 2001; Donovan, 1991; Fawcett, Lewis, et al., 1997;
Higgins & MacDonald, 1992; Hunnicutt, Perry-Hunnicutt, Newman, Davis, &
Crawford, 1993; Hofford & Spelman, 1996; Kraft, 1988; Newman, Martin, &
Weppner, 1982; Stivers, 1994; Vertinsky & Mangham, 1991; Villas, Cardenas, &
Jameson, 1994. New to 4th edition:
Canto, M. T., Goodman,
H. S.,
Horowitz,
A. M., Watson,
M. R.,
&
Duran-Medina,
C.
(1998). Latino youths’ knowledge of oral cancer and use of tobacco and
alcohol. American Journal of Health Behavior, 22, 411-20.
Dedobbeleer,
N., & Desjardins, S. (2001). Outcomes of an ecological and participatory
approach to prevent alcohol and other drug abuse among multiethnic
adolescents. Substance Use and Misuse 36, 1959-91.
Fawcett, S. B., Lewis, R. K., Paine-Andrews, A., Francisco, V. T., Richter,
K. P., Williams, E. L., & Copple, B. (1997). Evaluating community coalitions
for prevention of substance abuse: The case of project freedom. Health
Education and Behavior, 24, 812-28.
Hofford, C.
W., & Spelman, K. A. (1996). The community action plan: incorporating health
promotion and wellness into alcohol, tobacco and other drug abuse prevention
efforts on the college campus. Journal of Wellness Perspectives, 12,
70-9.
83>66.
Project Graduation demonstrated reduction in teen alcohol-related vehicle
fatalities following provision of enabling factor of alcohol-free graduation
parties.
Mowatt, Isaly, &
Thayer, 1985.
Mowatt, C., Isaly, J., & Thayer, M. (1985). Project Graduation—Maine.
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 34, 233-5.
67. Laws
enabling and reinforcing environmental controls on alcohol consumption before or
during driving have reduced drunk driving, alcohol-related crashes, injuries and
fatalities. Holder, Gruenewald, et al., 2000; Senserrick, 2003;
Shults, Elder, et al., 2001; Shults, Sleet, et al., 2002; Treno & Lee, 2002. For
an overview of theories applicable to injury prevention and the use of the
Precede-Proceed Model to organize and integrate them, see Gielen & Sleet, 2003.
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